Movation and human desire

   Research Proposal

Introduction/ Hypotheses: 

People desire different things in life, so it is very important for psychologists to understand what motivates all people to achieve their dreams. Just because some people adapt to their environment and work in different ways, it does not mean they lack the motivation and the drive to accomplish their goals. Since 1940, people started to recognize the importance of motivation with the discovery of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.  As a result, psychologists are trying to find the best way to motivate people. 

How can we define motivation? Motivation is a psychological process that determines three aspects of every individual person’s needs and personality. The three aspects are direction, intensity, and persistence of people‘s actions. These aspects lead them to achieve their dreams. Direction of actions is defined as where, or rather, what specific tasks an individual should put their effort into. Activation or direction involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class. On the other hand intensity means how much effort you should put into each task. Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks intensity while the second student pursues his educational goals with greater intensity. Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree, although it requires a significant investment of time, energy, and resources. 

This study intends to expand upon the results of many past studies. This proposed study examined the relationship between two variables: Intrinsic motivation and self advocacy in the workplace. There were two hypotheses that were proposed in this study. The first hypothesis is intrinsic motivation in the workplace leads to positive effects on self-advocacy. The second hypothesis is that motivation leads to instinctual optimism, which has positive effects on self advocacy in the workplace. The results of the study supported the hypotheses. Negative perception of a person’s self image relates to the two hypotheses. My research showed that there is a positive relationship between self advocacy and motivation. According to my research, the influence of intrinsic motivation on self advocacy suggests that if you have a heightened sense of intrinsic motivation, then you are more likely to positively convey your ideas and perspectives. Based on my research findings, one of the positive effects of having a strong sense of self-advocacy is having high self-esteem and confidence to communicate and articulate your beliefs to other people.  This study is very important because (as mentioned earlier) it is pertinent for psychologists to understand what motivates different people to achieve their goals and dreams. Just because some people adapt to their environment and work in different ways does not mean that they lack motivation and drive to accomplish their goals. As a result, psychologists are trying to find the best ways to encourage people to motivate themselves at work.

Theoretical Introduction: 

So what are the things that actually motivate us to act? Psychologists have proposed various theories to explain what motivates people. There are six important theories that support human motivation. These theories are: the self-determination theory, the goal-setting theory, the cognitive theory, the instinct theory, the incentive theory, and lastly, the drive theory.

Self-determination

Goal-setting

Cognitive theory

The fourth theory is the instinct theory. The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts. An instinct is a fixed and inborn pattern of behavior. The Psychologists that studied the instinct theory include William James, Sigmund Freud, and William McDougal. Theses psychologists have proposed a number of basic human drives that motivate behavior. Such instincts might include biological instincts, which are important for an organism’s survival. These survival instincts in include feelings such as fear, cleanliness, and love. According to instinct theories, people are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionarily programmed to do so. An example of this in the animal world is seasonal migration. These animals do not learn to do this; instead, it is an inborn pattern of behavior that some species must do to migrate at certain times each year. William James created a list of human instincts such as attachment, play, shame, anger, fear, shyness, modesty, and love. All of these emotions tend to motivate people in many different ways.  The main problem with this theory is that it did not really explain behavior the motivation for why people do what they do. It would be interesting to know how genetics and heredity effect motivation and human behavior.

The fifth important theory is the incentive theory. The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to complete tasks because of external rewards. For example, you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward (being paid). Behavioral learning concepts, such as association and reinforcement, play an important role in this theory of motivation. This theory shares some similarities with the behaviorist concept of operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, behaviors are learned by forming associations with outcomes. Reinforcement strengthens a behavior while punishment weakens it. While incentive theory is similar, it instead proposes that people intentionally pursue certain courses of action in order to gain rewards. The greater the perceived rewards, the more strongly people are motivated to pursue those reinforcements. 

 The last and final theory of motivation is the drive theory. According to the drive theory, people are motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. For example, you might be motivated to drink a glass of water in order to reduce the internal state of thirst. This theory is useful in explaining behaviors that have a strong biological component, such as hunger or thirst. The problem with the drive theory of motivation is that these behaviors are not always motivated purely by physiological needs. For example, people often eat even when they are not really hungry. Drive theory suggests that people have basic biological drives and that our behaviors are motivated by the need to fulfill these drives. Although the drive theory is important because it explains how people are motivated by biological needs, it only describes behavior. It does not really emphasize emotional and psychological components for motivation, which is even more important. If you don’t have the psychological and emotional components for motivation then you are not really motivated. Based on the drive theory, an individual will only be driven to accomplish surviving biologically, rather than achieving their personal dreams and goals in life. 

***The next theory is the expectancy theory. The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that when we are thinking about the future, we formulate different expectations about what we think will happen. When we predict that there will most likely be a positive outcome, we believe that we are able to make that possible future a reality. This leads people to feel more motivated to pursue those likely outcomes.

While no single theory can adequately explain all human motivation, looking at the individual theories can offer a greater understanding of the forces that cause us to take action. In reality, there are likely many different forces that interact to motivate behavior. Despite the fact that there are many different theories of motivation, my research shows that intrinsic motivation is the most effective. Specifically, there is a strong relationship between intrinsic motivation and self-advocacy.

Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic motivations are those that arise from outside of the individual and often involve rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition or praise. Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from within the individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for the personal gratification of solving a problem.

Industrial psychologists study job performance; beyond that, Industrial psychologists analyze many criterion and predictors of work behaviors. It is important for psychologists to closely examine the relationship between a powerful criterion of intrinsic motivation and individual self-advocacy. Studying intrinsic motivation as a predictor of self-advocacy allows psychologists to predict whether intrinsic motivation has a positive  effect on people’s ability to engage in self-advocacy while they interact with others in the workplace.  In order to understand how intrinsic motivation predicts the tendency of self-advocacy we need to analyze the relationship between the two. Therefore, we need to define intrinsic motivation and self-advocacy.  Intrinsic motivation is any behavior that is caused by internal factors, which comes from the qualities of an individual’s personality and their experiences.  My research shows that self-advocacy consists of any actions that allow people to speak up for themselves and stand up for what they believe in. However, advocating for yourself does not mean that people have to depend completely on other people. It also does not mean individuals must do everything on their own.  For self-advocacy to occur there needs to be a balance between being independent and knowing when to ask for help. 

Method

Participants

 A sample of 50 college students was recruited during the spring of 2015. All participants were females. The majority (50%) of participants were African American. In addition, 20% of the participants were white, 20 % were Latino and 10% of participants were of other descent. Freshmen and sophomores only accounted for 5% each of the sample. Juniors were represented by 60%.  Lastly, seniors were signified by 25% of the sample, and graduate students were 5%of the sample 

Measures

The instruments used in this study were a combination of the instruments used in other survey research and items created by the author.  The First instrument was   a Self-Esteem Index used in the study by Rosenberg (1965).  This scale was 1 to 5.measuring self esteem. .1 = strongly disagree or strongly agree depending on the question number 2-= disagree or agree depending on the question number 3=agree or disagree depending on the question number 4= strongly agree or strongly disagree. The second instrument was    called ’Socio cultural  Attitudes Towards Appearance”  scale created from the website www.  Body image disturbance.  usf.  Edu /sat index..    This scale was 1 to 5.measuring the women “s. Attitudes.  For this scale 1 EQUAL definitely agree.   2 Equals mostly disagree.    Three equals neither disagree or agree 4 equals mostly agree AND five equals definitely agree. The third section of the survey used an Instrument named “ The Influence of Day preference On Body Image and Mood in college aged women “ by Miglinas Kristen from the Saint Anselm College Department of Psychology  Basic demographic questions were created by the author. The first section of the questionnaire consisted of 20 questions that included questions on the participant’s age, class standing, racial or ethnic background, media influence and 10 questions on self-esteem. The second section of the questionnaire consisted of 22 questions about the media’s influence on the attitudes of women.  The name of this scale was ’Socio cultural  Attitudes Towards Appearance”  The third section of the questionnaire consisted of 7 questions about the media influence on the body image attitudes of women and body image diagram. The last section of the questionnaire consisted of two questions that asked for the height and weight of the participant’s. Each question was measured by the Likert Scale that consisted of four to five values depending on the section; 1= strongly disagree or strongly agree depending on the question number 2-= disagree or agree depending on the question number 3=agree or disagree depending on the question number 4= strongly agree or strongly disagree    The first questions asked the participant’s their age class standing, racial or ethnic background, media influence and 10 questions on self-esteem. Then there were 22 questions about the media influence on the attitudes of women who read magazines and who do not read magazines The third section of the questionnaire  dealt with nine figures and body image questions like which figure  most resembles you and which figure do you find most attractive, etc.   The last the last section of the questionnaire consisted of two questions that asked for the height and weight of the participant’s

Procedure 

The participants were given a pen and paper survey on the media’s influence on women’s self-esteem and body image.   The results of the survey were gathered by asking 50 students who were all women to fill out a survey on the influence of media ion the body image attitudes of women, half of participants did fashion read magazines and the other half of the participants did not read fashion magazines. As the surveys were completed the data was entered and statically analyses were performed using SPS program.  There were 22 questions about the media influence on the attitudes of women who read magazines and who do not read magazines the third section of the questionnaire there were two questions on fashion magazines in the survey .the first question was if women read fashion magazines. The second question  was how often women read fashion magazines if they did  women read fashion magazines once, week, twice a week , three times a week or four times.  

Results

It was hypothesized that women who are exposed to media will have a negative perception of their image and self. The total scores for the questions on women who read magazines (M=24.6, SD =3.20) were compared between participants who did not read magazines (M=25.75, SD =2.60).  An independent t- test was conducted comparing The total level of esteem of women who read did and did not read magazines. With a an alpha level for this test being .05 was not found to be statically significant, t (-.82) =16 p<.7.57) .This suggests that there is no significant difference in the relationship between the esteem of women who are exposed to media and read magazines and the esteem of women who are not exposed to media and do not read magazines in society.

Additional analyses were conducted to evaluate the relationship between esteem and media exposure in general. It was hypothesized that women who are exposed to media will have a negative perception of their image and self. A Pearson correlation test was conducted to relate  the  esteem of women who read magazines, (M =1.75, SD=1.48) and the total esteem score  of women who do not  read magazines and women who are not exposed to media .(M=24.85,SD=2.92).With an alpha level for this test being.05, the relationship between women who are exposed to media and read magazines and  the esteem of women who are not exposed to media and do not read magazines  the was not found to be statistically  significant r (1)=- .094 p >.05 This suggests that media exposure to media by women‘s did not affect the esteem of women  whether  or not women did  or not read magazines .

    It was hypothesized that women who are exposed to media will have a negative perception of their image and self. .An independent t- test was conducted to compare those women who are exposed to media and read magazines (M=  30.33,SD=3.45) and the esteem of women who are not exposed to media and do not read magazines  (M=31.33,SD =2.082) With an alpha level for this test being .05, the relationship between  women who are exposed to media and read magazines and  the esteem of women who are not exposed to media and do not read magazines  the was not found to be statistically significant t(7)=-.-454 p >.05 This suggests that media exposure to media by women‘s did not affect the  body image self And  esteem of women  whether  or not women did  or not read magazines ..

It was hypothesized that women who are exposed to media will have a negative perception of their image and self. A Pearson correlation test was conducted to relate the  Total self esteem and  total body image of those women who are exposed to media and read magazines(M 1.21  SD = 1.47 )and  the esteem of women who are not exposed to media and do not read magazines (M=7.24,SD =1.55) With an alpha level for this test being.05, the relationship between women who are exposed to media and read magazines and  the esteem of women who are not exposed to media and do not read magazines  the was not found to be statistically  significant r (5)=-.-.64 p >.05 This suggests that media exposure to media by women‘s did not affect the  self -esteem  and body image of women  whether  or not women did  or not read magazines .This suggests that media exposure to media by women‘s did not affect the esteem of women  whether  or not women did  or not read magazines. 

Discussion

This study intended to expand upon the results of many past studies. The proposed study examined the issue of the media sending the wrong messages in society that emphasize the wrong ideals for women such as supermodel ideals and impossible beauty expectations. The results of the study did not support the hypothesis that those women who are exposed to media will have a negative perception of their image and self.  In relation to the hypothesis, this study also focused on  the influence of media  on body image and the self-esteem of women and whether or not there is a relationships between body image and self-esteem of women   Even though, the results of the study did not show a significant difference between the esteem of and body image  women who read magazines and women  who do not read magazines; the media does have a significant effect on the expectations of women in society Based on my research findings it has been hypothesized that women who are exposed to media will have a negative perception of their image and self.   This proposed research study is important because it shows how heavily young women are negatively influenced by the negative the portrayal of women in magazines; even more, then they realized it this portrayal has a very deep effect on the perception of their own body image and self.

A limitation of this study is the small sample. A Study needs a large sample size to produce accurate and reliable results.  Another limitation of this study is the fact that all of the participants were only limited to women students from Hofstra University.  This means that the results cannot be generalized from all women; this study needed a larger sample of women from many different universities to generalize the results. The results of this would have been very different and they might have significant results if a sample of 300 people from five different universities were asked to complete survey on the media’s influence on women and body image.  Participants need to be all females. In future studies the same experiment should be conducted with a larger sample. If a sample of 300 people from 5 different universities were asked to complete survey on the media’s influence on women and body image. Participants need to be all females. The results of this would have been very different and they might have significant valid and reliable results in that experiment. 

 

My data supports the hypothesis of self-advocacy being very significant for individuals to communicate their message. The reason why self-advocacy is very important is because in our society are not heard unless they articulate their message in a positive way. At the same time, in order for self-advocacy to be affective, an individual has to be intrinsically motivated.

It is important for psychologists to closely examine the relationship between a powerful criterion of intrinsic motivation and individual self-advocacy. Many people do not realize the power of self-advocacy until they find themselves in a situation where the skills are necessary. When people are able to articulate their ideas in a formal setting they are better equipped to advocate for justice. People need to advocate in the work environment.  Individuals must not be afraid to stand up for what they believe in otherwise they cate so they can convey their message in a positive way that does not create problems in the wo will not accomplish their goal or get anything done.   People must learn the skills of self-advocacy to be heard and taken seriously. Learning self-advocacy skills also develops self-determination skills, which could foster increased personal satisfaction and happiness. All students must learn through opportunities and experience the importance of intrinsic motivation and self-advocacy as tools to use to their advantage in a work environment or life situation. Intrinsic motivation and self-advocacy can be used as a method of developing your voice so you can interact with others and be a successful individual in society.

Many studies define intrinsically motivated behaviors as any behaviors that individuals are engaged in for the activity’s own sake. People perform these actions for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from the results. When intrinsically motivated, people engage in activities that interest them, and they do so freely, with a full sense of volition and without the necessity of material rewards or constraints (Deci & Ryan, 1985).  For example a basic researcher is intrinsically motivated because they are engaged in research for knowledge’s sake. Moreover, the child who reads a book for the inherent pleasure of doing so is intrinsically motivated for that activity. Intrinsically motivated behaviors represent the prototype of self-determination. They emanate from the self and are fully endorsed (Deci & Ryan, 1985).  In order to understand the power of intrinsic motivation to start social movements, or fight injustice and social inequalities in organizations,   people must learn the skills of self-advocacy to be heard.  As a result, intrinsic motivation allows for self-advocacy to exist because people need internal forces such as religion, internalized social norms, interests, and hobbies to initiate the need for self-advocacy. The more motivated individuals are, the more they feel the desire to advocate for themselves in their work behaviors. This makes them more productive and more likely to achieve self-advocacy or their goals in life.  An important theory on motivation is self-determination theory.

Based on my research, Self-Advocacy is one form of communicating your message to other people in a way that represents what you stand for. This process occurs any time people speak or act on their own behalf to improve their quality of life, effect personal change, or correct inequalities (Concunan-Lahr and Brotherson as cited in Brown, 1999). Many studies define self-advocacy in different ways. For example, according to Strodden (2005), Self-advocacy is referred to as the ability to articulate one’s needs and make informed decisions about the supports necessary to meet those needs (Strodden, as cited in Test et al, 2005).  Therefore, psychologists establish how powerful the relationship between intrinsic motivation and self-advocacy truly is.

Based on a study by Deci and Ryan (2000b) there is a positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and self-advocacy. This means that individuals with high intrinsic motivation are more likely to engage in work behaviors that lead to self-advocacy than people who do not have intrinsic motivation. Individuals need to be intrinsically motivated in order to focus on an issue, since people advocate about something that has personal meaning and value attached to it, something they care about. People educate themselves about issues just to be more informed, and not to get any personal gain. Once a person educates himself or herself on an issue, they might then seek out others that are being affected, and try to develop a strategy for improving the service for others. Self-Advocates use many ideas to capture the attention of officials or other powers through standing up for what they believe in rather than leaving things as they are. There is no right or wrong way to organize others, but the most important thing is how the group comes to the decision together. The power is in the group working together to make a difference in people’s lives. Everyone has the ability to advocate, they just need the intrinsic motivation it takes to rid themselves of the fear of standing up for what they believe in. 

   

Bernard Weiner’s Three-Dimensional theory of attribution assumes that people try to determine why we do what we do. According to Weiner, the reasons we attribute to our behaviour can influence how we behave in the future.

For example, a student who fails an exam could attribute their failure to a number of factors and it’s this attribution that will affect their motivation in the future.

Weiner theorized that specific attributions (e.g. bad luck, not studying hard enough) were less important than the characteristics of that attribution. According to Weiner, there are three main characteristics of attributions that can affect future motivation.

1. Stability – how stable is the attribution? For example, if the student believes they failed the exam because they weren’t smart enough, this is a stable factor. An unstable factor is less permanent, such as being ill.

According to Weiner, stable attributions for successful achievements, such as passing exams, can lead to positive expectations, and thus higher motivation, for success in the future.

However, in negative situations, such as failing the exam, stable attributions can lead to lower expectations in the future.2. Locus of control – was the event caused by an internal or an external factorFor example, if the student believes it’s their own fault they failed the exam, because they are innately not smart enough (an internal cause), they may be less motivated in the future. If they believed an external factor was to blame, such as poor teaching, they may not experience such a drop in motivation.

3. Controllability – how controllable was the situation? If an individual believes they could have performed better, they may be less motivated to try again in the future than someone who believes they failed because of factors outside of their control.

How to apply it to the workplace

Weiner’s Three-Dimensional theory of attribution has implications for employee feedback.

Make sure you give your employees specific feedback, letting them know that you know they can improve and how they can about it. This, in theory, will help prevent them from attributing their failure to an innate lack of skill and see that success is controllable if they work harder or use different strategies.

You could also praise your employees for showing an improvement, even if the outcome was still not correct. For example, you might praise someone for using the correct methodology even though the results weren’t what you wanted. This way, you are encouraging employees to attribute the failure to controllable factors, which again, can be improved upon in the future.

 

References:

Nevid, J. (2013). Psychology: Concepts and applications. Belmont, CA: Wadworth