Fun fact about children
Sarah ELgohary
Chapter 11 middle childhood
Physical
CHAPTER 12Middle Childhood:Cognitive DevelopmentLearning OutcomesLO1 Describe the developments in Piaget’s concrete-operational stage, focusing on examples of decentration, such as conservation and seriation.Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageConcrete-Operational Stage: (Third Stage)From 7-12 years of ageChildren show beginnings of logic and focus is on tangible (concrete) objectsThought is now reversible and flexibleChildren are less ego-centricAlso now engage in decentration (the ability to focus on multiple parts of a problem at once)Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageConservationThe concept that objects can have several properties or dimensions simultaneouslyChildren at this stage now show understanding of the laws of conservation.Recall the experiment of placing equal amounts of water in different shape containers; pre-operational children are unable to judge the value that the amount of water remains the same even though one container looks taller than the otherNow the child will readily grasp there is the same amount of water.
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageTransitivityUnderstanding of this concept is tested by demonstrating the ability to place objects in a series, or order, according to some property or trait they possess.This is known as Seriation.Pre-operational children cannot put in order more than one property at a time.Concrete-operational children, age 7-8 yrs, can work with more than one dimension at a time.
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageClass InclusionThe ability to differentiate subclasses of objectsThe Pre-Operational child may not be able to discriminate between “dogs” and “animals.”The Concrete-Operational child is now able to understand that “dog” is part of a larger class “animal.”
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageApplications of Piaget’s Theory to EducationPiaget believed learning involves active discovery.Teachers should use interesting and stimulating materials rather than simply try to impose knowledge.Instruction should be geared to the child’s level of development.Learning to see others’ perspective is key to cognition and morality.Teachers should promote group discussions and interactions among students.LO2 Moral Development: The Child as JudgeMoral Development: The Child as JudgeMoral reasoning is related to a child’s overall cognitive development.Both Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg believed moral reasoning follows similar cognitive-developmental patterns world wide.The individual cultural settings exert influence on moral development but there is still an orderly unfolding of cognitive processes.
LO2 Discuss the theories of moral development of Piaget and Kohlberg. Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageConcrete-Operational Stage: (Third Stage)From 7-12 years of ageChildren show beginnings of logic and focus is on tangible (concrete) objectsThought is now reversible and flexibleChildren are less ego-centricAlso now engage in decentration (the ability to focus on multiple parts of a problem at once)Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageConservationThe concept that objects can have several properties or dimensions simultaneouslyChildren at this stage now show understanding of the laws of conservation.Recall the experiment of placing equal amounts of water in different shape containers; pre-operational children are unable to judge the value that the amount of water remains the same even though one container looks taller than the otherNow the child will readily grasp there is the same amount of water.
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageTransitivityUnderstanding of this concept is tested by demonstrating the ability to place objects in a series, or order, according to some property or trait they possess.This is known as Seriation.Pre-operational children cannot put in order more than one property at a time.Concrete-operational children, age 7-8 yrs, can work with more than one dimension at a time.
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageClass InclusionThe ability to differentiate subclasses of objectsThe Pre-Operational child may not be able to discriminate between “dogs” and “animals.”The Concrete-Operational child is now able to understand that “dog” is part of a larger class “animal.”
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageApplications of Piaget’s Theory to EducationPiaget believed learning involves active discovery.Teachers should use interesting and stimulating materials rather than simply try to impose knowledge.Instruction should be geared to the child’s level of development.Learning to see others’ perspective is key to cognition and morality.Teachers should promote group discussions and interactions among students.LO2 Moral Development: The Child as JudgeMoral Development: The Child as JudgeMoral reasoning is related to a child’s overall cognitive development.Both Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg believed moral reasoning follows similar cognitive-developmental patterns world wide.The individual cultural settings exert influence on moral development but there is still an orderly unfolding of cognitive processes.Piaget’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentStage 1: Moral Realism (Objective Morality)About age 5 children:Judge correct behavior as conforming to authority or following the rulesPerceive rules as embedded in structure of thingsRules reflect reality: moral realismRules are seen as absolute with no consideration for meeting social needs of peopleThe concept of immanent justice (automatic retributions) disallows children at this stage to separate intentional from accidental thus does not allow exclusion from punishment for accidental injuries.At this stage, the amount of damage is more relevant than the intentions of the wrongdoer.Moral Development: The Child as JudgePiaget’s Theory of Moral Development, con’t.Stage 2: Autonomous MoralityAge 9-11Moral judgments become more self-governed.Children see rules as agreements subject to change when circumstances warrant.They can now focus on multiple dimensions; so can see rules and motives as separate considerationsThey also now have greater capacity to empathize.Decentration and empathy allow weighing of intentions versus amount of damage as consideration in judgmentsAccidents are less likely to be viewed as crimes.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentKohlberg emphasized importance of viewing morals from someone else’s perspective.He argued that developmental stages of moral reasoning follow the same sequence in all children.Stating children progress at different rates and not all reach the highest stageFor early and middle childhood, he placed the reasons for judgments into two levels of development with 2 stages in each level (4 stages in all).Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentThe Preconventional Level:Children base moral judgments on the consequences of their actions.Stage 1 & 2 moral judgments most used by 7-10 year olds; after age 10 they declineStage 1: Oriented toward obedience and punishment One is good merely to avoid being punished.Stage 2: Good behavior satisfies own needs and maybe others.Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentThe Conventional Level:Right and wrong are determined by conformity to family, religious, and societal standards.Stages 3 & 4 emerge during middle childhood after age 7About 20% of 10 yr-olds conform to these stagesStage 3:Moral behavior is considered “normal” or what everyone does.It is good to meet the expectations of others.Stage 4:Moral judgments based on rules that maintain social order.Showing respect for authority and duty is highly valued.
LO3 Discuss information processing in middle childhood, focusing on developments in selective attention and memory.LO3 Information ProcessingInformation ProcessingKey elements in children’s information processing:Development of selective attentionDevelopment of capacity for memory and understanding of the memory processDevelopment of problem-solving abilitiesInformation ProcessingDevelopment of Selective AttentionThe ability to focus attention and screen out distractionsConcrete-Operational children can now attend to multiple aspects of a problem at the same time.This allows conservation of number and volume.
Information ProcessingDevelopments in the Storage and Retrieval of InformationMemory:The process of storing and retrieving informationRecall Memory:Children’s memory is a good overall indicator of cognitive ability.4th graders have better recall than 2nd graders.Metacognition and Metamemory:Metacognition:Awareness and control of one’s own cognitive abilitiesMetamemory: An aspect of metacognition referring specifically to awareness of the functioning of memoryOlder children store and retrieve information more effectively and show more knowledge of strategies used to facilitate memory.Selective rehearsal (repeating important information as way of remembering it) is used after about age 6-7.
Information ProcessingDevelopments in the Storage and Retrieval of Information, con’t.3 Major Structures of Memory:Sensory Memory: (sensory register)Input from the sensory organs: lasts for only a fraction of a second after which the “trace” of the stimulus decaysShort Term Memory: (working memory)When focus is placed on a sensory input, it is retained in STM for about 30 seconds.Auditory stimuli last longer than visual; it helps to encode visual input as sounds and employ rehearsing as means of memory aidThe capacity of short-term memory is best described as “bits” or chunks of information that can be kept in memory at one time.Typical 5-6 year olds can retain 2 chunks of information at a time but this capacity increases with maturity; an adult can retain about 7 chunks give or take 2Rote learning: is simple associative learning based on repetitionInformation Processing3 Major Structures of Memory, con’t. Long Term Memory:If something in STM is attended to, it can be dedicated to long term memory, a vast storehouse of a lifetime of information.There is no known limit on the quantity of information humans can retain.If someone is unable to retrieve information, it is most likely due to lack of knowing where to find it (similar to misfiling in a file cabinet).Older children are most likely to use rote rehearsal when trying to remember something.But a more effective way to promote memory retrieval is by using elaborative strategy, the method of relating new material to already known material.
Information Processing3 Major Structures of Memory, cont. Long Term Memory, cont.Organization in Long-Term MemoryPreschoolers tend to organize memories by grouping objects according to general functional categories.In middle childhood, the organization becomes more narrowed and specific.When items are correctly categorized, children are more likely to recall them accurately.Knowledge in a particular area increases the capacity to store and retrieve related information.
LO4 Discuss theories, measurement, and determinants of intelligence, and the relationship of intelligence to achievement and creativity.
LO4 Intellectual Development, Creativity, and AchievementIntellectual Development, Creativity, and AchievementAt an early age, we form impressions of our intelligence by comparison to others.We associate intelligence with academic success, career advancement, and good social skills.Intelligence is an intangible quality making measurement difficult.Intelligence: underlying competence or learning abilityAchievement: the performance of acquired competenciesMany of the competencies underlying intelligence are seen during middle childhood, when most children are first exposed to formal schooling.
Chapter 11 middle childhood
Physical
CHAPTER 12Middle Childhood:Cognitive DevelopmentLearning OutcomesLO1 Describe the developments in Piaget’s concrete-operational stage, focusing on examples of decentration, such as conservation and seriation.Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageConcrete-Operational Stage: (Third Stage)From 7-12 years of ageChildren show beginnings of logic and focus is on tangible (concrete) objectsThought is now reversible and flexibleChildren are less ego-centricAlso now engage in decentration (the ability to focus on multiple parts of a problem at once)Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageConservationThe concept that objects can have several properties or dimensions simultaneouslyChildren at this stage now show understanding of the laws of conservation.Recall the experiment of placing equal amounts of water in different shape containers; pre-operational children are unable to judge the value that the amount of water remains the same even though one container looks taller than the otherNow the child will readily grasp there is the same amount of water.
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageTransitivityUnderstanding of this concept is tested by demonstrating the ability to place objects in a series, or order, according to some property or trait they possess.This is known as Seriation.Pre-operational children cannot put in order more than one property at a time.Concrete-operational children, age 7-8 yrs, can work with more than one dimension at a time.
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageClass InclusionThe ability to differentiate subclasses of objectsThe Pre-Operational child may not be able to discriminate between “dogs” and “animals.”The Concrete-Operational child is now able to understand that “dog” is part of a larger class “animal.”
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageApplications of Piaget’s Theory to EducationPiaget believed learning involves active discovery.Teachers should use interesting and stimulating materials rather than simply try to impose knowledge.Instruction should be geared to the child’s level of development.Learning to see others’ perspective is key to cognition and morality.Teachers should promote group discussions and interactions among students.LO2 Moral Development: The Child as JudgeMoral Development: The Child as JudgeMoral reasoning is related to a child’s overall cognitive development.Both Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg believed moral reasoning follows similar cognitive-developmental patterns world wide.The individual cultural settings exert influence on moral development but there is still an orderly unfolding of cognitive processes.
LO2 Discuss the theories of moral development of Piaget and Kohlberg. Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageConcrete-Operational Stage: (Third Stage)From 7-12 years of ageChildren show beginnings of logic and focus is on tangible (concrete) objectsThought is now reversible and flexibleChildren are less ego-centricAlso now engage in decentration (the ability to focus on multiple parts of a problem at once)Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageConservationThe concept that objects can have several properties or dimensions simultaneouslyChildren at this stage now show understanding of the laws of conservation.Recall the experiment of placing equal amounts of water in different shape containers; pre-operational children are unable to judge the value that the amount of water remains the same even though one container looks taller than the otherNow the child will readily grasp there is the same amount of water.
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageTransitivityUnderstanding of this concept is tested by demonstrating the ability to place objects in a series, or order, according to some property or trait they possess.This is known as Seriation.Pre-operational children cannot put in order more than one property at a time.Concrete-operational children, age 7-8 yrs, can work with more than one dimension at a time.
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageClass InclusionThe ability to differentiate subclasses of objectsThe Pre-Operational child may not be able to discriminate between “dogs” and “animals.”The Concrete-Operational child is now able to understand that “dog” is part of a larger class “animal.”
Piaget: The Concrete-Operational StageApplications of Piaget’s Theory to EducationPiaget believed learning involves active discovery.Teachers should use interesting and stimulating materials rather than simply try to impose knowledge.Instruction should be geared to the child’s level of development.Learning to see others’ perspective is key to cognition and morality.Teachers should promote group discussions and interactions among students.LO2 Moral Development: The Child as JudgeMoral Development: The Child as JudgeMoral reasoning is related to a child’s overall cognitive development.Both Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg believed moral reasoning follows similar cognitive-developmental patterns world wide.The individual cultural settings exert influence on moral development but there is still an orderly unfolding of cognitive processes.Piaget’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentStage 1: Moral Realism (Objective Morality)About age 5 children:Judge correct behavior as conforming to authority or following the rulesPerceive rules as embedded in structure of thingsRules reflect reality: moral realismRules are seen as absolute with no consideration for meeting social needs of peopleThe concept of immanent justice (automatic retributions) disallows children at this stage to separate intentional from accidental thus does not allow exclusion from punishment for accidental injuries.At this stage, the amount of damage is more relevant than the intentions of the wrongdoer.Moral Development: The Child as JudgePiaget’s Theory of Moral Development, con’t.Stage 2: Autonomous MoralityAge 9-11Moral judgments become more self-governed.Children see rules as agreements subject to change when circumstances warrant.They can now focus on multiple dimensions; so can see rules and motives as separate considerationsThey also now have greater capacity to empathize.Decentration and empathy allow weighing of intentions versus amount of damage as consideration in judgmentsAccidents are less likely to be viewed as crimes.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentKohlberg emphasized importance of viewing morals from someone else’s perspective.He argued that developmental stages of moral reasoning follow the same sequence in all children.Stating children progress at different rates and not all reach the highest stageFor early and middle childhood, he placed the reasons for judgments into two levels of development with 2 stages in each level (4 stages in all).Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentThe Preconventional Level:Children base moral judgments on the consequences of their actions.Stage 1 & 2 moral judgments most used by 7-10 year olds; after age 10 they declineStage 1: Oriented toward obedience and punishment One is good merely to avoid being punished.Stage 2: Good behavior satisfies own needs and maybe others.Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentThe Conventional Level:Right and wrong are determined by conformity to family, religious, and societal standards.Stages 3 & 4 emerge during middle childhood after age 7About 20% of 10 yr-olds conform to these stagesStage 3:Moral behavior is considered “normal” or what everyone does.It is good to meet the expectations of others.Stage 4:Moral judgments based on rules that maintain social order.Showing respect for authority and duty is highly valued.
LO3 Discuss information processing in middle childhood, focusing on developments in selective attention and memory.LO3 Information ProcessingInformation ProcessingKey elements in children’s information processing:Development of selective attentionDevelopment of capacity for memory and understanding of the memory processDevelopment of problem-solving abilitiesInformation ProcessingDevelopment of Selective AttentionThe ability to focus attention and screen out distractionsConcrete-Operational children can now attend to multiple aspects of a problem at the same time.This allows conservation of number and volume.
Information ProcessingDevelopments in the Storage and Retrieval of InformationMemory:The process of storing and retrieving informationRecall Memory:Children’s memory is a good overall indicator of cognitive ability.4th graders have better recall than 2nd graders.Metacognition and Metamemory:Metacognition:Awareness and control of one’s own cognitive abilitiesMetamemory: An aspect of metacognition referring specifically to awareness of the functioning of memoryOlder children store and retrieve information more effectively and show more knowledge of strategies used to facilitate memory.Selective rehearsal (repeating important information as way of remembering it) is used after about age 6-7.
Information ProcessingDevelopments in the Storage and Retrieval of Information, con’t.3 Major Structures of Memory:Sensory Memory: (sensory register)Input from the sensory organs: lasts for only a fraction of a second after which the “trace” of the stimulus decaysShort Term Memory: (working memory)When focus is placed on a sensory input, it is retained in STM for about 30 seconds.Auditory stimuli last longer than visual; it helps to encode visual input as sounds and employ rehearsing as means of memory aidThe capacity of short-term memory is best described as “bits” or chunks of information that can be kept in memory at one time.Typical 5-6 year olds can retain 2 chunks of information at a time but this capacity increases with maturity; an adult can retain about 7 chunks give or take 2Rote learning: is simple associative learning based on repetitionInformation Processing3 Major Structures of Memory, con’t. Long Term Memory:If something in STM is attended to, it can be dedicated to long term memory, a vast storehouse of a lifetime of information.There is no known limit on the quantity of information humans can retain.If someone is unable to retrieve information, it is most likely due to lack of knowing where to find it (similar to misfiling in a file cabinet).Older children are most likely to use rote rehearsal when trying to remember something.But a more effective way to promote memory retrieval is by using elaborative strategy, the method of relating new material to already known material.
Information Processing3 Major Structures of Memory, cont. Long Term Memory, cont.Organization in Long-Term MemoryPreschoolers tend to organize memories by grouping objects according to general functional categories.In middle childhood, the organization becomes more narrowed and specific.When items are correctly categorized, children are more likely to recall them accurately.Knowledge in a particular area increases the capacity to store and retrieve related information.
LO4 Discuss theories, measurement, and determinants of intelligence, and the relationship of intelligence to achievement and creativity.
LO4 Intellectual Development, Creativity, and AchievementIntellectual Development, Creativity, and AchievementAt an early age, we form impressions of our intelligence by comparison to others.We associate intelligence with academic success, career advancement, and good social skills.Intelligence is an intangible quality making measurement difficult.Intelligence: underlying competence or learning abilityAchievement: the performance of acquired competenciesMany of the competencies underlying intelligence are seen during middle childhood, when most children are first exposed to formal schooling.
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