1 are human beings born to be naturally selfish creatures.

ASSIGNMENTS 1 A: “Option A: Compare, Contrast, Evaluate the 3 models

What is the goal of human lives? Is it to achieve the ultimate pleasure (happiness)? Is the goal of our human life supposed to be based on duties or the golden rule? If this is the case, then it means that humans’ actions, are rational only if these decisions and actions can be universalize. In other words, should our moral decisions only be based on the fact that a decision or behavior is intrinsically right,only if a person is willing to universalize their own behavior, so that all people can commit the same actions. On the other hand, do you think that our moral decisionsand human behavior should be intrinsically wrong when and only if a person is not willing to universalize their own behaviors, so that all people can commit the same actions?  If you do not like these ideas, then maybe you will like a model where the ethical decisions are based on the character qualities or virtues’ that people have.  There are three basic ethical models that evaluate human behavior and moral decisions based on happiness or pleasure (Utilitarianism), deontology which is based on duty, and finally the virtues model.  

The first model is Utilitarianism, where human behavior is based on happiness or pleasure. Utilitarianism, is based on ancient Hedonism. In addition, Hedonism is the principle meaning something pleasurable. Therefore, Hedonism isthe philosophical position with claims that happiness or pleasure is the proper goal, target or ‘end of life ‘Hedonism argues that the purpose of life should be the pursuit and attainment of some kind of pleasure happiness. According to hedonism, the Pursuit of pleasure will turns into happiness.”In Utilitarianism happiness is the opposite of pain, in addition, “Pleasure “is associated with “good” and “pain” is associated with “bad.” The Hedonistic argument concludes that pleasure is life’s basic and ultimate goal (end).

There are four types of hedonism; Psychological Hedonism, EthicalHedonism, Universalistic Hedonism and Individualistic Hedonism. Psychological hedonism states that it is in our human nature to pursue pleasure and avoid pain.We cannot control it. Psychological hedonism is a description of what human beings actually do because of the way we are made. In other words, it describes how something is (description of our nature). It is not prescription because it does not mean we ‘ought’ or ‘should’ do something. A Psychological hedonist says all human beings act for the sake of their own personal pleasure and happiness:therefore altruism, is a myth because to Psychological hedonists any acts of charity “for others” are, in reality, done for the sake of their personal interests. Psychological hedonists cannot be genuinely concerned for the need of others. InEthical Hedonism, Human beings ‘ought’ to seek pleasure this means you should pursuit pleasure, since you are this way by nature; therefore; you should do it. Thisis built into nature; nature commands you to seek pleasure (you have no choice).In Individualistic Hedonism, the Pleasure or happiness is to be required for the individual agent who performs the action, moral obligation to make you (the individual) happy. They are not concern about others. On the other hand , inUniversalistic Hedonism, people have to seek the happiness or pleasure of society as a whole. This does not mean that your own personal happiness is to count to no greater or lesser a degree than the happiness of others.  for a universalistic hedonist making a choice Is not  about benefiting oneself, but benefiting the community (for the greater good).Personal pleasure is not being made; instead; making a choice for the greater good so they can be happy; not necessarily for you to benefit.Universalistic hedonists have to think about the good of the community over their own happiness  

There are seven hedonistic factors to measure pleasure and happiness In the  Hedonistic Calculus. The hedonistic calculus was devised by Jeremy Bentham, who was hedonistic Utilitarian philosopher because he was trying to make themeasurements of pleasures less subjective and more objective. As a result,  Hemade  the Hedonistic Calculus as a way to focus on the “quantification: of pleasures and pain. the Hedonistic Calculus is a way to weigh good (happiness) and bad (pain)  by Hedon a unit of measurement of pleasure The Hedonistic Calculus applies to the 7 hedonistic factors. Which are Intensity, Duration, Certainty or uncertainty, Propinquity and remoteness, Fecundity Purity Extent  .The intensity is how strong, or weak the pleasure is the stronger the pleasure is the better longer pleasure lasts the better.  The intensity of a pleasure is private and individualistic. The certainty or uncertainty of pleasures means that you may or may not enjoy  the pleasure there for this factor  is Private pleasure; individualistic. There is no social relationship. For example you order what you know you will like off the menu rather than trying something new because you are unsure whether or not you will like The principles of Propinquity and remoteness Are referring todistance of the pleasure from you.   Propinquity Is how close the pleasure is to you and remoteness is how far the pleasure is from you, graduation  for example  May not be enjoyed until sometime into the future. These factors are Kind of subjective. Pleasures that can be enjoyed more immediately (are better). This is saying that you should grab the pleasure while you can. Fecundity is the Tendency of a pleasure to be followed by sensations of the same time, i.e. that a pleasure will produce more pleasure rather than its opposite pain. It is Individualistic. An Example of this pleasure is when you are eating a hot dog when you eat the hot dog for the frist time you have experienced this pleasure it was there for the first and second hotdog, the third hotdog is tolerable, but the fourth hotdog is pain. This means the pleasure does not stay the same it inverts from pleasure and turns into pain. Purity is the  chance that pleasure will not be followed by the oppositesensation, i.e. pain. The 7th factor that is Extent is the most important factor because extent is the number of people that are affected by the pleasure Extent is what makes Universal hedonism. NOT individualistic. It is a universal model Modern day must take into account when I do ‘x’, how many people will be affected. In other words, how much happiness am I producing by doing ‘x’

Utilitarianism is a Teleological Model Which means that it is Goal oriented Model where the end is the goal and your morals actions depend on the consequences. Utilitarianism Is a form of ethical reasoning which looks forward to the ‘consequences,’ ‘results,’ or ‘outcomes’ of our behavior as the standard for what is ethically ‘good. ‘The Greatest Happiness Principle (GHP) or Principle of Utility/Utilitarianism states that actions are only good when they generateshappiness for the greatest amount of people. “The ‘end’ justifies the means”. In Utilitarianism  for “Example: the  Dropping  the atomic bomb at the end of World War II  was justified according to Utilitarianism because Stop the war and save lives even if it means killing some in the moment. In the end, even more lives will be saved; therefore; it becomes justified. It does not matter how you get there, as long as you achieve it Utilitarianism is an altruistic and societal model because   the Aim for utilitarianism is to produce happiness/pleasure/well-being for the greatest number of people. 

There are two forms of Utilitarianism ‘Act’ Utilitarianism and rule. In rule Utilitarianism Right actions are those that create the greatest amount of happiness and pleasure for the greatest number of people and people Do not act on abstract rules. Right or wrong is not in the act itself. It is based on the outcome or consequence. Act Utilitarianism Focuses on one particular act at a time without referring to any moral rules.  In Rule Utilitarianism Actions are morally ‘right’ if they conform to a moral rule which, when generally obeyed, produces the most amount of happiness. Follow moral rules, as long as the moral rule contributes to the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.If breaking a moral rule can produce happiness for the greatest amount of people, then it becomes an obligation.

The second model of ethical reasoning is known as Deontology. It is a duty based ethical model. In this model ethical ‘rightness’ is discovered in the ACTION ITSELF. Deontology is not looking at the consequences or outcome. Instead Deontology argues that you have a duty or obligation to act conformity with what is intrinsically right. The Results, outcomes, consequences are irrelevant for ethical rightness; what is ‘right’ is so because of the intrinsic, inherent or innate MORAL WORTH. It is independent of any results accruing from the action. UnlikeUtilitarianism in as Deontology Happiness is NOT the criteria it is second. Factoraction will be right or wrong in its own nature. ‘Right actions’ has intrinsic moral value. Immanuel Kant WAS A deontological philosopher who believes in the categorical imperative.  The Categorical Imperative” It is a must, an order; a command. Not a hedonistic pleasure, but an obligation. An “absolute command” to do what is right. this Means THAT , there is no wiggle room. Have to do it no matter what. It is an absolute must because there is no dependence on other conditions.  people can THE Categorical Imperative”  It is Act only in such a way that the principle for one’s behavior can rationally be willed as a universal law” in order words action are only rational If they pass the test of universeraly l ability , if you, the moral agent, prior to doing what you are about to do, WILLING to make your action a universal law for every single human being? Are you willing to ‘reverse places’ with the one who is affected by your behavior – ‘principle of reversibility’ for Example: There is money on the ground that someone dropped. Action to take it or not, have to think: are you willing to trade places with the person who dropped it? Are you willing to make it universally; meaning all human beings should behave this way? If the answer is no, you ‘CAN NOT ’ not to do it. If you ‘ought’ not to give yourself/ reverse pleasures, you ‘ought’ not to do that action.If the answer is yes, if you rationally will that everyone do in principle what you are .

The third the model is based on Virtue Virtues are the qualities or characteristic traits such as (honesty, patient, courageous, truthful, generosity).This is an ancient model from the Greek world founded by Aristotle .this model is  Anagent-centered approach.” it is about “Developing the character of the moral agent.”. This model was founded Aristotle’s principle Moral virtue (good habit) Practical reason, Eudaimonia The “Golden Mean” (aurea Mediocritics) .Eudaimonia = is the principle of the highest well-being or ‘happiness that a human being can achieve in life. People always want more stuff, but Aristotle does not believe in that.In order for us to be truly happy, we must be as human as possibleby self-realization and   Euaimonia AN Authentic Human Happiness is achieved in living a RATIONAL LIFE. Reason leads to true vital happiness or Eudaimonia. 

​  In other words   human being are only human through the rationalization of  thinking.

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..​Reason can be exercised in two distinct ways: contemplation AND practical reason. Contemplation IS Intellectual virtue you have – acquired something you did not know before. This kind of knowledge is for its own sake. Aristotle says that the greatest joy or level of happiness is our capacity for reason is exercised for its own sake. Reason is its own reward.​In other words, this theory of knowledge is theoretical (knowledge for the sake of knowledge).The point is that knowledge is precious in its own right. This intellectual virtue of knowledge is valuable in itself because it is truth or the highest level of thinking we can do.It is a reflective of our capacity of rational animals. Intellectualknowledge does not have any impact on a person’s character or how someone acts in society. AS A RESULT, Aristotle says if you live by yourself on another planet, you technically would not be human because he says you need to be part of society to be human. You have to interact with others to act ethically. Practical reasonIS”The ability to exercise reason over our passions and emotions. This is the kind of reason we need to live moral lives. Practical reasoning Helps the individual determine how to behave. This is a moral virtue. Reason and knowledge guided for actions and behavior.Practical reason Allows us to live lives not controlled by extreme feelings but rather by the “principle of moderation”, THE GOLDEN MEAN! The “Aurea Mediocritas” is that principle which says that we should live life in moderation in all respects of human behavior. We should avoid all extremes since extreme behavior is irrational.Hence, MODERATION = RATIONAL = EXCELLENCE = VIRTUE.*Do not confuse with the golden rule*we do not live on the edges, but in the center.​We have to Follow the mid or moderate path.for Example: firefighter will think it through before he enters a burning house. That knowledge is known as practical reason. This will guide how a person acts.

Aristotle’s Outlook is “Teleological “model  that has a goal the goal of The aim or goal or purpose of human life is happiness, however, we need to be careful not to confuse this with the modern day version of utilitarianism. .Man’s aim is happiness understood as achieving a rational ethical life which is living life at the “mean.”Living a life of moderation; not extremes!!​Tell us that vices are extreme levels of behavior no matter what we do. The “Principle” of Virtue Ethics.​Not too much, not too little. This is the Golden Mean DO“Everythingin moderation” –you have to see the mean or look for the center in all things. Moral Virtue = Good Habit Good Habit is understood as a “mean” form of behavior or moderate mid-point between two extreme forms of behavior (vices).Virtues are driven by reason. There are Two extremes: coward who lacks all courage and the other one is reckless = these are two vices. An Example of a Good Habit is to have some: Courage .One does not become courageous by ‘studying about’ courage, by reading books about courage, by being taught by someone about courage, or by being told by someone to simply ‘be courageous.’ Aristotle says that one acquires courage by practicing courageous things. Moral virtues are habits but they are acquired through practice. Vices ARE the acting out of the extremes (meaning too much of a virtue or too less of a virtue).  How do you know where the center is?​The courage in a firefighter is different the courage from another person. Each have a different center. We each decide where our rational mean is. One person’s level of generosity is different from someone else’s level.

Practical reason applies to ethics because it impacts our behavior.

PART b  I  THINK that The third the model based on Virtue principle  seems to be most appropriate for the advancement of the interests of humankind  I  think that  people  can never stop gaining more virtues to strengthen  their  characters  and become THE best people  we can be.  This is because   OF the fact that Virtues are the  qualities/characteristic traits such as (honesty, patient, courageous, truthful, generosity).THIS MODEL “Developing the full character of the moral agents as a result  humankind  Is the only . I believe  in the golden mean Because   people are  always  doing too much or too little in life  and  too much of any good thing can psychologically  and physically damage people.  THIS IS why I agree  with Aristotle about doing everything in moderation  people need to find their own balance  or center in order to make rational  decisions  in life and achieve  their  full potentials in their lives making themselves  full human beings   who have  reached Euaimonia.   Each PERSON HAS a different center. We each decide where our rational mean is. One person’s level of generosity is different from someone else’s level. Practical reason applies to ethics because it impacts our behavior. EACH PERSON have a different center. We each decide where our rational mean is. One person’s level of generosity is different from someone else’s level. Practical reason applies to ethics because it impacts our behavior.

Part c 

1. The ends justifies the mean is one of the concept of utilitarianism. It means THAT A good outcome excuses any wrong action that are committed to attain it. For example, He's campaigning with illegal funds on the theory that if he wins the election the end will justify the means, or The officer tricked her into admitting her guilt—the end sometimes justifies the means. Morally wrong actions are sometimes necessary to achieve morally right outcomes; actions can only be considered morally right or wrong by virtue of the morality of the outcome. ’The Greatest Happiness Principle (GHP) or Principle of Utility/Utilitarianism states that actions are  only  good when they generates happiness for the greatest amount of people.“The ‘end’ justifies the means. In Utilitarianism  for “Example: the  Dropping  the atomic bomb at the end of World War II  was justified according to Utilitarianism because Stop the war and save lives even if it means killing some in the moment. In the end, even more lives will be saved; therefore; it becomes justified. It does not matter how you get there, as long as you achieve it​